Germanium information, including Technical Data, Safety Data and its high purity properties, research, applications and other useful facts are discussed below. Scientific facts such as the atomic structure, ionization energy, abundance on Earth, conductivity and thermal properties are included.
 Germanium is a very important semiconductor. Zone-refining techniques have led to production of crystalline germanium for semiconductor use with extremely high purities. When germanium is doped with arsenic, gallium, or other elements, it is used as a transistor element in thousands of electronic applications. The most common use of germanium is as a semiconductor. Germanium is also finding many other applications including use as an alloying agent, as a phosphor in fluorescent lamps, and as a catalyst. Germanium and germanium oxide are transparent to the infrared and are used in infrared spectroscopes and other optical equipment, including extremely sensitive infrared detectors. The high refractive index and dispersion properties of its oxide's have made germanium useful as a component of wide-angle camera lenses and microscope objectives. The field of organo-germanium chemistry is becoming increasingly important. Germanium is available as metal and compounds with purities from 99% to 99.9999% (ACS grade to ultra-high purity); metals in the form of foil, sputtering target, and rod, and compounds as submicron and nanopowder.
Germanium facts, including appearance, CAS #, and molecular formula and safety data, research and properties are
available for many specific states, forms and shapes on the product pages listed to the left. Elemental or metallic forms include pellets, rod, wire and granules for evaporation source material purposes. Nanoparticles and nanopowders provide ultra high surface area which nanotechnology research and recent experiments demonstrate function to create new and unique properties and benefits.
 Oxides are available in forms including powders and dense pellets for such uses as optical coating and thin film applications. Oxides tend to be insoluble. Fluorides are another insoluble form for uses in which oxygen is undesirable such as metallurgy, chemical and physical vapor deposition and in some optical coatings. Germanium is available in soluble forms including chlorides, nitrates and acetates. These compounds are also manufactured as solutions at specified stoichiometries.
Germanium is a Block P, Group 14, Period 4 element. The number of electrons in each of Germanium's shells is 2, 8, 18, 4 and its electronic configuration is [Ar] 3d10 4s2 4p2. In its elemental form germanium's CAS number is 7440-56-4. The germanium atom has a radius of 122.5.pm and it's Van der Waals radius is 200.pm. Germanium is not toxic.
 All elemental metals, compounds and solutions may be synthesized in ultra high purity (e.g. 99.999%) for laboratory standards, advanced electronic, thin fillm deposition using sputtering targets and evaporation materials, metallurgy and optical materials and other high technology applications. Information is provided for stable (non-radioactive) isotopes. Organo-Metallic Germanium compounds are soluble in organic or non-aqueous solvents. See Analytical Services for information on available certified chemical and physical analysis techniques including MS-ICP, X-Ray Diffraction, PSD and Surface Area (BET) analysis.
Germanium is produced mainly from sphalerite but is also found in silver, lead, and copper ores. Germanium was first discovered by Clemens Winkler in 1886. The name Germanium originates from the Latin word "Germania" meaning "Germany".
 Germanium |
 Germanium |
 Germanio |
 Germânio |
 Germanio |
 Germanium |
Abundance. The following table shows the abundance of germanium and each of its naturally occurring isotopes on Earth along with the atomic mass for each isotope.
| Isotope |
Atomic Mass |
% Abundance on Earth |
| Ge-70 |
69.924250 |
21.23 |
| Ge-72 |
71.922076 |
27.66 |
| Ge-73 |
72.923459 |
7.73 |
| Ge-74 |
73.921178 |
35.94 |
| Ge-76 |
75.921403 |
7.44 |
The following table shows the abundance of Germanium present in the human body and in the universe scaled to parts per billion (ppb) by weight and by atom:
| |
Typical Human Body |
Universe |
| by Weight |
no data |
200 ppb |
| by Atom |
no data |
3 ppb |
Safety Data and Biological Role. The safety data for germanium metal, nanoparticles and its compounds can vary widely depending on the form. For potential hazard information, toxicity, and road, sea and air transportation limitations, such as DOT Hazard Class, DOT Number, EU Number, NFPA Health rating and RTECS Class, please see the specific material or compound referenced in the left margin. Germanium compounds have no biological role.
Ionization Energy. The ionization energy for germanium (the least required energy to release a single electron from the atom in it's ground state in the gas phase) is stated in the following table:
| 1st Ionization Energy |
762.18 kJ mol-1 |
| 2nd Ionization Energy |
1537.47 kJ mol-1 |
| 3rd Ionization Energy |
3302.15 kJ mol-1 |
Conductivity. As to germanium's electrical and thermal conductivity, the electrical conductivity measured as to electrical resistivity @ 20 şC is 46000000 μΩcm and its electronegativities (or its ability to draw electrons relative to other elements) is 2.01. The thermal conductivity of germanium is 122.5 W m-1 K-1.
Thermal Properties. The melting point and boiling point for germanium are stated below. The following chart sets forth the heat of fusion, heat of vaporization and heat of atomization.
| Heat of Fusion |
34.7 kJ mol-1 |
| Heat of Vaporization |
327.6 kJ mol-1 |
| Heat of Atomization |
373.8 kJ mol-1 |
Recent Research & Development for Germanium
Synthesis of Mixed Tin-Ruthenium and Tin-Germanium-Ruthenium Carbonyl Clusters from [Ru(3)(CO)(12)] and Diaminometalenes (M = Sn, Ge).
Cabeza JA, García-Álvarez P, Polo D.
Inorg Chem. 2012 Jan 11. [Epub ahead of print]
PMID:
22235838
[PubMed - as supplied by publisher]
RADIOACTIVITY RISK ASSOCIATED WITH THE HANDLING OF COMPACT FLUORESCENT LAMPS.
Medhat ME, Eissa HS, Elmaghraby EK, Abu Khadra SA.
Radiat Prot Dosimetry. 2012 Jan 9. [Epub ahead of print]
PMID:
22232775
[PubMed - as supplied by publisher]
Synthesis of Nanoamorphous Germanium and Its Transformation to Nanocrystalline Germanium.
Dag O, Henderson EJ, Ozin GA.
Small. 2012 Jan 9. doi: 10.1002/smll.201101993. [Epub ahead of print]
PMID:
22228493
[PubMed - as supplied by publisher]
Synthesis and structural characterization of two-coordinate low-valent 14-group metal complexes bearing bulky bis(amido)silane ligands.
Yang D, Guo J, Wu H, Ding Y, Zheng W.
Dalton Trans. 2012 Jan 5. [Epub ahead of print]
PMID:
22218706
[PubMed - as supplied by publisher]
Compositional Differences between Size Classes of Dissolved Organic Matter from Freshwater and Seawater Revealed by an HPLC-FTIR System.
Tremblay L, Landry C.
Environ Sci Technol. 2012 Jan 4. [Epub ahead of print]
PMID:
22216934
[PubMed - as supplied by publisher]
Soft Lithographic Functionalization and Patterning Oxide-free Silicon and Germanium.
Bowers CM, Toone EJ, Clark RL, Shestopalov AA.
J Vis Exp. 2011 Dec 16;(58). pii: 3478. doi: 10.3791/3478.
PMID:
22214997
[PubMed - in process]
The ARRONAX Project.
Haddad F, Barbet J, Chatal JF.
Curr Radiopharm. 2011 Jul 1;4(3):186-96.
PMID:
22201708
[PubMed - in process]
Metastable Ge1-xCx Alloy Nanowires.
Kim BS, Lee JH, Son K, Hwang SW, Choi BL, Lee EK, Kim JM, Whang D.
ACS Appl Mater Interfaces. 2011 Dec 27. [Epub ahead of print]
PMID:
22201458
[PubMed - as supplied by publisher]
Reactivity of Digermylenes toward Potassium Graphite: Synthesis and Characterization of Germylidenide Anions.
Chia SP, Yeong HX, So CW.
Inorg Chem. 2012 Jan 16;51(2):1002-10. Epub 2011 Dec 21.
PMID:
22188525
[PubMed - in process]
Optics of semiconductors from meta-generalized-gradient-approximation-based time-dependent density-functional theory.
Nazarov VU, Vignale G.
Phys Rev Lett. 2011 Nov 18;107(21):216402. Epub 2011 Nov 15.
PMID:
22181900
[PubMed - in process]
Active microwave negative-index metamaterial transmission line with gain.
Jiang T, Chang K, Si LM, Ran L, Xin H.
Phys Rev Lett. 2011 Nov 11;107(20):205503. Epub 2011 Nov 11.
PMID:
22181744
[PubMed - in process]
Mesoporous zinc germanium oxynitride for CO(2) photoreduction under visible light.
Zhang N, Ouyang S, Kako T, Ye J.
Chem Commun (Camb). 2012 Jan 9;48(9):1269-71. Epub 2011 Dec 16.
PMID:
22179125
[PubMed - in process]
In Situ X-ray Absorption Spectroscopy Study of Si(1-x)Ge(x)O(2) Dissolution and Germanium Aqueous Speciation under Hydrothermal Conditions.
Ranieri V, Haines J, Cambon O, Levelut C, Le Parc R, Cambon M, Hazemann JL.
Inorg Chem. 2012 Jan 2;51(1):414-9. Epub 2011 Dec 16.
PMID:
22175278
[PubMed - in process]
Open-shell complexes containing metal-germanium triple bonds.
Filippou AC, Barandov A, Schnakenburg G, Lewall B, van Gastel M, Marchanka A.
Angew Chem Int Ed Engl. 2012 Jan 16;51(3):789-93. doi: 10.1002/anie.201107120. Epub 2011 Dec 15.
PMID:
22173926
[PubMed - in process]
A review of recent developments in the speciation and location of arsenic and selenium in rice grain.
Carey AM, Lombi E, Donner E, de Jonge MD, Punshon T, Jackson BP, Guerinot ML, Price AH, Meharg AA.
Anal Bioanal Chem. 2011 Dec 8. [Epub ahead of print]
PMID:
22159463
[PubMed - as supplied by publisher]
Electrodeposition of germanium from supercritical fluids.
Ke J, Bartlett PN, Cook D, Easun TL, George MW, Levason W, Reid G, Smith D, Su W, Zhang W.
Phys Chem Chem Phys. 2012 Jan 4;14(4):1517-28. Epub 2011 Dec 12.
PMID:
22158943
[PubMed - in process]
Gamma-ray fast-timing coincidence measurements from the (18)O+(18)O fusion-evaporation reaction using a mixed LaBr(3)-HPGe array.
Alharbi T, Mason PJ, Regan PH, Podolyák Z, Marginean N, Nakhostin M, Bowry M, Bucurescu D, Cata-Danil G, Cata-Danil I, Deleanu D, Filipescu D, Glodariu T, Ghita D, Marginean R, Mihai C, Negret A, Pascu S, Sava T, Stroe L, Suliman G, Zamfir NV, Bruce AM, Rodriguez Triguero C, Bender PC, Garg U, Erduran MN, Kusoglu A, Bostan M, Detistov P, Alkhomashi N, Sinha AK, Chakrabarti R, Ghugre SS.
Appl Radiat Isot. 2011 Dec 3. [Epub ahead of print]
PMID:
22154387
[PubMed - as supplied by publisher]
Mesoporous Nitrogen-Doped Carbon-Glass Ceramic Cathodes for Solid-State Lithium-Oxygen Batteries.
Kichambare P, Rodrigues S, Kumar J.
ACS Appl Mater Interfaces. 2011 Dec 14. [Epub ahead of print]
PMID:
22148159
[PubMed - as supplied by publisher]
Synthesis, Structure, Chemical Bonding, and Magnetism of the Series RELiGe(2) (RE = La-Nd, Sm, Eu).
Bobev S, You TS, Suen NT, Saha S, Greene R, Paglione J.
Inorg Chem. 2012 Jan 2;51(1):620-8. Epub 2011 Dec 6.
PMID:
22145852
[PubMed - in process]
Inducing novel electronic properties in <112> Ge nanowires by means of variations in their size, shape and strain: a first-principles computational study.
Zhang C, De Sarkar A, Zhang RQ.
J Phys Condens Matter. 2012 Jan 11;24(1):015301. Epub 2011 Dec 2.
PMID:
22133518
[PubMed - in process] |
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